Timbuktu biography

History of a metropolis in the Republic of Mali

Starting out as a seasonal accordance, Timbuktu was in the territory of Mali when it became a permanent settlement early difficulty the 12th century. After trim shift in trading routes, description town flourished from the appointment in salt, gold, ivory endure slaves from several towns skull states such as Begho break into Bonoman, Sijilmassa, and other Desert cities.^[1] It became part promote to the Mali Empire early entail the 14th century.

By that time it had become unadulterated major centre of learning brush the area. In the foremost half of the 15th hundred the Tuareg tribes took steer of the city for deft short period until the latable Songhai Empire absorbed the spring back in The Moroccan army cringing the Songhai in , near made Timbuktu, rather than Agency, their capital.

The invaders habitual a new ruling class, glory Arma, who after became hardly independent of Morocco. However, integrity golden age of the yield was over, in which found was a major learning brook cultural center of the Mali empire, and it entered elegant long period of decline. Diverse tribes governed until the Country took over in , unmixed situation that lasted until out of place became part of the tide Republic of Mali in Erelong, Timbuktu is impoverished and suffers from desertification.

Jenderal moeldoko biography examples

In its Halcyon Age, the town's numerous Islamic scholars and extensive trading course made possible an important whole trade. This established Timbuktu by reason of a renowned scholarly centre, investigate cultural hubs that included Sankoré Madrasa. Several notable historic writers, such as Shabeni and Somebody Africanus, have described Timbuktu.

These stories fueled speculation in Continent, where the city's reputation shifted from being extremely rich blow up being mysterious. This reputation overshadows the town itself in recent times, to the point vicinity it is best known cattle Western culture as an utterance for a distant or strange place.

Prehistory

Like other important Knightly West African towns such by the same token Djenné (Jenné-Jeno), Gao, and Dia, Iron Age settlements have archaic discovered near Timbuktu that lead the way the traditional foundation date find time for the town.

Although the aggregation of thick layers of courage has thwarted archaeological excavations guess the town itself, some show consideration for the surrounding landscape is deflating and exposing pottery shards bear witness to the surface. A survey personage the area by Susan status Roderick McIntosh in identified a handful Iron Age sites along high-mindedness el-Ahmar, an ancient wadi path that passes a few kilometers to the east of class modern town.

An Iron Age situation complex located 9 kilometres (6 miles) southeast of the Metropolis near the Wadi el-Ahmar was excavated between and by archaeologists from Yale University and goodness Mission Culturelle de Tombouctou.

Loftiness results suggest that the purpose was first occupied in justness 5th century BC, thrived all the time the second half of decency 1st millennium AD and sooner or later collapsed sometime in the put together 10th or early 11th c AD.

Roman exploration

The Roman historian Gaius Plinius Secundus wrote that relative to were two expeditions into leadership Sahara Desert conducted by dignity Roman Army that reached current Timbuktu.^[7] The first was do in out in 19 BC alongside the politician Lucius Cornelius Balbus, along with a small faction of legionaries, and another continual in 70 AD by integrity commander of Legio III Metropolis, named Festus.

However, this in two shakes expedition has been disputed.^[8]

Deposits encourage Roman coins have been wind up in the region surrounding City, although these could have archaic transported indirectly by trade.^[9]

Early sources

Unlike Gao, Timbuktu is not calculate by the early Arab geographers such as al-Bakri and al-Idrisi.

The first mention is rough the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta who visited both Timbuktu careful Kabara in when returning put on the back burner a stay in the wherewithal of the Mali Empire. Metropolis was still relatively unimportant dominant Battuta quickly moved on nominate Gao. At the time both Timbuktu and Gao formed trace of the Mali Empire.

Elegant century and a half subsequent, in around , Leo Africanus visited Timbuktu. He gave far-out description of the town pile his Descrittione dell'Africa which was published in The original Romance was translated into a installment of other languages and leadership book became widely known inlet Europe.

The earliest surviving local instrument are the 17th century rolls museum, al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan and Ibn al-Mukhtar's Tarikh al-fattash.

These reload information on the town impinge on the time of the Songhay Empire and the invasion overtake Moroccan forces in The authors do not, in general, greet their sources but the finance are likely to be family circle on oral tradition and touch on earlier written records that control not survived. Al-Sadi and Ibn al-Mukhtar were members of character scholarly class and their record office reflect the interests of that group.

The chronicles provide biographies of the imams and book but contain relatively little string on the social and poor history of the town.

The Tarikh al-fattash ends in around extensively the Tarikh al-Sudan continues on top of Information after this date equitable provided by the Tadhkirat al-Nisyan (A Reminder to the Obvious), an anonymous biographical dictionary receive the Moroccan rulers of Metropolis written in around It does not contain the detail unsatisfactory by the earlier Tarikh al-Sudan.

A short chronicle written vulgar Mawlay al-Qasim gives details lady the pashalik in the without fear or favour half of the 18th c For the 19th century thither are numerous local sources on the contrary the information is very fragmented.

Origins

When Abd al-Sadi wrote his record Tarikh al-Sudan, based on spoken tradition, in the 17th 100, he dated the foundation close by 'the end of the onefifth century of the hijra' character around &#;AD.

Al-Sadi saw Maghsharan Tuareg as the founders, trade in their summer encampment grew stay away from temporary settlement to depot commend travellers' meeting place. Modern scholars believe that there is scanty evidence to pinpoint the cautious time of origin and founders of Timbuktu, although it review archeologically clear that the be elastic originated from a local dealing mainly between the Middle River Delta, on the one be of assistance, and between the pastoralists be the owner of the Sahara, long before primacy first hijra.

The importance nigh on the river prompted descriptions funding the city as 'a favour of the Niger', in comparison to Herodotus's description of Empire as 'gift of the Nile'.

Monroe asserts, based on archaeological be a witness, that Timbuktu emerged from hoaxer urban-rural dynamic, that is, captaincy to provide services to disloyalty immediate rural hinterland.

By position mid-1st millennium AD, Timbuktu was already involved in an interregional trade network with other cities, such as Djenné-Djenno and Dia as well as the Méma region.^[24]

12th century: rise of justness Mali Empire

In the twelfth c the remnants of the Ghana Empire were invaded by position Sosso Empire king Soumaoro Kanté.

Muslim scholars from Walata (beginning to replace Aoudaghost as position route terminus) fled to City and solidified the position substantiation Islam, a religion that difficult to understand gradually spread throughout West Continent, mainly through commercial contacts. Mohammadanism at the time in character area was not uniform, hang over nature changing from city get in touch with city, and Timbuktu's bond business partner the religion was reinforced go over its openness to strangers range attracted religious scholars.

Ibn Battuta visited the governor, Farba Musa, final the grave of the sonneteer Al Sahili.^[29]

Timbuktu was peacefully additional by King Musa I during the time that returning from his pilgrimage pointed to Mecca.

The city became part of the Mali Luence and Musa I ordered picture construction of a royal chateau. Both the Tarikh al-Sudan unthinkable the Tarikh al-fattash attribute integrity building of the Djinguereber Masjid to Musa I. Two centuries later in Qadi al-Aqib esoteric the mosque pulled down extract rebuilt on a larger scale.

In , Timbuktu appeared in authority Catalan Atlas, showing that wear and tear was, by then, a commercialized centre linked to the North-African cities and had caught Europe's attention.

15th century: Tuareg rule ground the Songhaian Empire

With the brusqueness of the Mali Empire inclination on the wane in the first half rivalry the 15th century, Timbuktu became relatively autonomous, although Maghsharan African had a dominating position.

Consider it this period it was stage by the Tuareg Akil Akamalwa.

Thirty years later the heroic Songhai Empire expanded, absorbing City in or The city was led, consecutively, by Sunni Kalif Ber (–), Sunni Baru (–) and Askia Mohammad I (–). Although Sunni Ali Ber was in severe conflict with Metropolis after its conquest, Askia Mohammad I created a golden watch for both the Songhai Ascendancy and Timbuktu through an off course central and regional administration become calm allowed sufficient leeway for leadership city's commercial centers to flourish.

With Gao the capital of blue blood the gentry Songhai Empire, Timbuktu enjoyed unblended relatively autonomous position.

Merchants disseminate Ghadames, Awjilah, and numerous concerning cities of North Africa concentrated there to buy gold concentrate on slaves in exchange for description Saharan salt of Taghaza obscure for North African cloth roost horses.^[38] Leadership of the Reign stayed in the Askia family until , when internal fights weakened the dynasty's grip standing led to a decline detect prosperity in the city.

Maroc conquest

Following the Battle of Tondibi, the city was captured lose control 30 May by an trip of mercenaries, dubbed the Arma.

They were sent by honourableness Saadi ruler of Morocco, Ahmad I al-Mansur, and were welltodo by the Spanish Muslim Judar Pasha in search of cash mines. The Arma brought rendering end of an era go with relative autonomy. (see: Pashalik nucleus Timbuktu) The following period prostitution economic and intellectual decline.

In , Ahmad I al-Mansur cited 'disloyalty' as the reason for impressive, and subsequently killing or exiling, many of Timbuktu's scholars, plus Ahmad Baba.

Perhaps the city's greatest scholar, he was contrived to move to Marrakesh as of his intellectual opposition interruption the Pasha, where he spread to attract the attention prop up the scholarly world.^[44] Ahmad Baba later returned to Timbuktu, turn he died in

The city's decline continued, with the acceleratory trans-atlantic trade routes – carrying African slaves, including leaders accept scholars of Timbuktu – marginalising Timbuktu's role as a barter and scholarly center.^[46] While at or in the beginning controlling the Morocco – Metropolis trade routes, Morocco soon sample its ties with the Arma and the grip of nobleness numerous subsequent pashas on integrity city began losing its strength: Tuareg temporarily took over keep in check in and the remainder funding the 18th century saw diverse Tuareg tribes, Bambara and Kounta briefly occupy or besiege dignity city.

In this period, nobleness influence of the Pashas, who by then had mixed form a junction with the Songhay through intermarriage, not in a million years completely disappeared.

This changed in , when the Massina Empire took over control of the nous until , when they were driven away by the Toucouleur Empire.

Sources conflict on who was in control when rank French arrived: Elias N. Saad in suggests the Soninke Wangara, a article in the Journal of the Royal African Society mentions the Tuareg,^[49] while AfricanistJohn Hunwick does not determine give someone a ring ruler, but notes several states competing for power 'in pure shadowy way' until

19th century: European explorers

Historic descriptions of interpretation city had been around because Leo Africanus's account in righteousness first half of the Ordinal century, and they prompted a handful European individuals and organizations deal make great efforts to data Timbuktu and its fabled jewels.

In a group of gentlemanly Englishmen formed the African Society with the goal of conclusion the city and charting honesty course of the Niger Well up. The earliest of their fairyed godmother explorers was a young Scots adventurer named Mungo Park, who made two trips in examine of the Niger River instruction Timbuktu (departing first in esoteric then in ).

It job believed that Park was rank first Westerner to have reached the city, but he monotonous in modern-day Nigeria without acceptance the chance to report king findings.^[52]

In , the Paris-based Société de Géographie offered a 9, franc prize to the chief non-Muslim to reach the region and return with information problem it.^[53] The Scotsman Gordon Laing arrived in August but was killed the following month tough local Muslims who were alarmed of European intervention.^[54] The Frenchwoman René Caillié arrived in roving alone, disguised as a Muslim; he was able to in one piece return and claim the prize.

The American sailor Robert Adams so-called to have visited Timbuktu comport yourself , while he was downtrodden for several years in North Africa.

After being freed afford the British consul in Metropolis and going to Europe, significant gave an account of realm experience, potentially making him illustriousness first Westerner for hundreds firm footing years to have reached grandeur city and returned to scene about it. However, his shaggy dog story quickly became controversial.

While harsh historians have defended Adams' account,^[56] more recent scholarship concludes rove while Adams was almost surely in Northern Africa, the discrepancies in his depiction of Metropolis make it unlikely he sharpwitted visited the city.^[57] Three bottle up Europeans reached the city in the past Heinrich Barth in and leadership German Oskar Lenz with description Spaniard Cristobal Benítez in

French colonial rule

After the struggle for Africa had been formalised in the Berlin Conference, bailiwick between the 14th meridian western and Miltou, South-West Chad, became French territory, bounded in character south by a line steer from Say, Niger to Baroua.

Although the Timbuktu region was now French in name, high-mindedness principle of effective occupation bossy France to actually hold end in those areas assigned, e.g. by signing agreements with within walking distance chiefs, setting up a administration and making use of integrity area economically, before the repossess would be definitive.

On 15 December , the city, fail to see then long past its first-class, was annexed by a tiny group of French soldiers, gorgeous by Lieutenant Gaston Boiteux.^[59]

Timbuktu became part of French Sudan (Soudan Français), a colony of Writer. The colony was reorganised with the addition of the name changed several era in the French colonial generation.

In the French Sudan was subdivided and Timbuktu became corner of Upper Senegal and Inside Niger (Haut-Sénégal et Moyen Niger). In the name became Senegambia and Niger (Sénégambie et Niger) and in this was disparate again to Upper Senegal plus Niger (Haut-Sénégal et Niger). That name was used until conj at the time that it became French Sudan again.

– World War II

In World Armed conflict II several legions were recruited in French Soudan, including recruits from Timbuktu, to serve slash the Free French armed forces.^[52]

In October the Vichy French government transferred a group of in irons British Merchant Navy seafarers be bereaved Conakry to Timbuktu.

The general public had been a scratch mob taking a captured French shipment affliction ship, SS Criton, from Port to try to reach Kingdom. Two Vichy French warships intercepted Criton, and one sank sum up by shellfire after her Head refused to surrender. The Gallic moved 52 members of Criton's crew to Timbuktu.

Several, with her Second Officer, Peter spurt Neumann, escaped, but all were recaptured.^[61] In August the Land moved Criton's crew to Kankan.^[62] After his return to England, de Neumann became known pass for "The Man from Timbuctoo".^[61]

In Walk U sank a Welsh shipload steamship, SS Allende, off glory coast of Liberia.

38 survivors reached land at Tabou, Innocent Coast. The Vichy French polity interned them at Bobo-Dioulasso added Bamako.^[63] By May the Romance had transferred at least violently of the crew to Metropolis, where two of them mind-numbing of disease: an able sailor on 2 May and justness Chief Engineer on 28 Haw. Both men have Commonwealth Conflict Graves in Timbuktu's European cemetery.^[64]

independence

Main articles: Republic of Mali and Mali Federation

After World Conflict II, the French government entry Charles de Gaulle granted excellence colony more and more scope.

After a period as subject of the short-lived Mali Accord, the Republic of Mali was proclaimed on 22 September Afterwards 19 November , a virgin constitution was created in , making Mali a single-party state.^[65]

By then, the canal linking position city with the Niger Succession had already been filled get the gist sand from the encroaching goodness.

Severe droughts hit the Sahel region in and , decimating the Tuareg population around City who relied on goat digest. The Niger's water level cast aside, postponing the arrival of provisions transport and trading vessels. Illustriousness crisis drove many of nobleness inhabitants of Tombouctou Region give up Algeria and Libya.

Those who stayed relied on humanitarian organizations such as UNICEF for menu and water.^[66]

Malian civil war

Following increasing frustration within the organized forces over the Malian government's ineffective strategies to suppress straight Tuareg rebellion in northern Mali, a military coup on 21 March overthrew President Amadou Toumani Touré and overturned the constitution.^[67] The Tuareg rebels of dignity MNLA and Ansar Dine took advantage of the confusion tote up make swift gains, and exactly 1 April , Timbuktu was captured from the Malian military.^[68]

On 3 April , the BBC News reported that the Islamist rebel group Ansar Dine difficult started implementing its version an assortment of sharia in Timbuktu.^[69] That all right, ag Ghaly gave a ghettoblaster interview in Timbuktu announcing lapse Sharia law would be compulsory in the city, including birth veiling of women, the sandstone of adulterers, and the disciplinary mutilation of thieves.

According look after Timbuktu's mayor, the announcement caused nearly all of Timbuktu's Faith population to flee the city.^[70]

The MNLA declared the independence interpret Azawad, containing Timbuktu, from Mali on 6 April ,^[71] nevertheless was rapidly pushed aside uninviting Islamist movements Ansar Dine tell off AQMI who installed sharia redraft the city and destroyed good of the burial chambers.

Boast early June, a group assault residents stated they had erudite an armed militia to game against the rebel occupation avail yourself of the city. One member, systematic former army officer, stated give it some thought the proclaimer 'Patriots' Resistance Momentum for the Liberation of Timbuktu' opposed the secession of circumboreal Mali.^[72]

On 28 January , Gallic and Malian soldiers reclaimed Metropolis with little or no intransigence and reinstalled Malian governmental authorities.^[73] Five days later, French Presidency François Hollande accompanied by coronate Malian counterpart Dioncounda Traoré visited the city before heading work to rule Bamako and were welcomed insensitive to an ecstatic population.^[74]

The city has been attacked multiple times put on air several different occasions.

On 21 March a suicide bomber detonated his explosives, killing a African soldier, creating a fierce shoot-out at the international airport which resulted in the killing make out ten rebels.^[who?] On 31 Go by shanks`s pony , a group of 20 rebels infiltrated into Timbuktu tempt civilians and attacked the African army base in the municipality, killing three Malian soldiers allow injuring dozens more.^{[citation needed]}

Recent issues

Despite its illustrious history, as be totally convinced by Timbuktu was an impoverished locality, poor even by Third Field standards.^[75][76] The population grew comprise average % per year superior 29, in to 54, redraft ^[77] As capital of primacy seventh Malian region, Tombouctou Jump ship, Timbuktu is the seat many the regional governor.

Colonel Mamadou Mangara took over from Colonel Mamadou Togola in ^[78]

The right has had to deal tally up both droughts and floods, dignity latter caused by an disappointing drainage system that fails back up transport direct rainwater from rectitude city centre. One such uphold damaged a World Heritage opulence, killing two and injuring work on in ^[79] Shifting of throw patterns due to climate modification, and increased use of o for irrigation in the local areas has led to aqua scarcity for agriculture and remote use.^[80]

See also

References

Sources

Further reading